action are called antioxidants. In a normal cell there is an appropriate pro-oxidant: antioxidant balance. However, this balance can be shifted towards the pro-oxidant when production of oxygen species is increased or when levels of anti-oxidants are diminished. This state is called ‘oxidative stress’ and can result in serious cell damage if the stress is massive or prolonged.⁴

1.1 Mechanism of action:

Active oxygen species, such as super oxide, OH,OOH etc. as well as free radicals derived from the biochemical utilization of oxygen or the prooxidant stimulation of oxygen metabolism, initiate the peroxidation of unsaturated lipids- especially those that constitute bio-membranes and are responsible for a large variety of chronic health problems such as aging, cancer, atherosclerosis, cataracts, as well as ischemia-reperfusion disturbances in the brain and heart, kidney and liver damages, inflammatory disorders, gastric ulcer, rheumatism, and destruction of proteins and nucleic acids, leading to a decrease in cellular activity and to living function.

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain reactions that damage cells. Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates, and inhibit other oxidation reactions. They do this by being oxidized themselves, so antioxidants are often reducing agents such as thiols, ascorbic acid or polyphenols.

Although oxidation reactions are crucial for life, they can also be damaging; hence, plants and animals maintain complex systems of multiple types of antioxidants, such as glutathione, vitamin C, and vitamin E as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases. Low levels of antioxidants, or inhibition of the antioxidant enzymes, cause oxidative stress and may damage or kill cells.⁵

1.2 Plant-derived Phenolic Compounds:

Bioactive compounds that are found in plants are referred to as phytochemicals. There is a large array of phytochemicals that have been studied for their clinical benefit in humans with many showing promise as anti-cancer agents. These anti-cancer compounds have been shown to possess chemo-preventive properties (i.e. antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic) as well as being able to interfere with tumor promotion and progression.

The anticancer properties of plants should not seem surprising given that numerous studies have shown that a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains is strongly associated with a reduced risk of cancer. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has identified at least 40 edible plants that possess cancer preventive properties. Within the realm of Chinese herbal medicine there are over 400 species of plants and herbs that are associated with cancer prevention. Estimates place the number of biologically active phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables, grains, and other plant species at over 5,000.

Among the clinically useful phytochemicals are the vitamins, carotenoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, and the phenolic compounds. Because of the large number of phenolic phytochemicals found in plants as well as their already being supplied as dietary supplements, this section will focus on this particular class of compound.

Plant-derived phenolic compounds exert a wide variety of biological activities that include antioxidant, anticancer, anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antiathersclerotic, and antiviral properties. Within the plant itself, phenolic compounds are necessary for reproduction, growth, and as defense mechanisms against parasites, predators, and pathogens. Although considered of lesser significance, phenolic compounds also impart the color of plants.

There are literally hundreds of phenolic compounds that have been identified or tested for medicinal benefit. These compounds include non-flavonoid phenolic acids and phenolic acid analogs, stilbenes, curcuminoids, coumarins, lignans, tannins, quinones, and the flavonoids. Phenolic compounds are so called because their chemical structure is composed of one or more aromatic rings containing one or more hydroxyl groups. See the Figures below for details; an aromatic ring is the hexagonal structure and a hydroxyl group is composed of an oxygen and hydrogen and written as –OH. The physiological and pharmacological functions associated with plant-derived phenolic compounds likely are related to their antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties. The more –OH groups present in a given compound the more antioxidant is the compound.

1.3 Non-Flavonoid Polyphenols: Phenolic Acids and their Analogs:

The phenolic acids represent a major class of plant-derived phenolic compounds. The predominant phenolic acids include the hydroxycinnamic acids and the hydroxybenzoic acids. The hydroxycinnamic acids include ferulic acid, caffeic acid, para-coumaric acid (p-coumaric), chlorogenic acid, and sinapic acid. The hydoxybenzoic acids include gallic acid, vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid, and protocatechuic acid. Structurally related polyphenols that are considered members of the phenolic acid analog family include capsaicin, rosmarinic acid, tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol (these latter 2 compounds are high in white wines), gingerol (responsible for the spicy taste of ginger), gossypol, ellagic acid, cynarin, paradol, and salvianolic acid B. The naturally occurring phenolic acids are found free or conjugated (most common conjugation is to a sugar molecule).

1.4 Flavonoid Polyphenols:

The flavonoids represent a group of related phenolic compounds of which more than 4000 different types have been identified as naturally occurring in plants. The flavonoids are compounds that, like the vitamins, are not produced by the body and must be acquired from the diet or nutritional supplements. The flavonoids are categorized into the flavones, flavonols, flavanones, flavanonols, flavanols (flavan-3-ols and flavan-3, 4-diols), and anthocyanins (anthocyanidins), chalcones, isoflavonoids (primarily isoflavones), neoflavonoids, and bi-flavonoids. These various flavonoid compounds are found in nature either free or conjugated to a sugar (carbohydrate) molecule via what is called a glycosidic linkage. The most common sugars found linked to flavonoids are glucose, galactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, and rhamnose.

1.5 Vitamins and Related Compounds:

1.5.1 Vitamin B₂ (riboflavin): The primary function of riboflavin is to serve as a precursor for the production of the co-enzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Enzymes that require FMN or FAD as cofactors are termed flavoproteins. Numerous enzymes involved in the generation of cellular energy from carbohydrates and fatty acids require FMN or FAD as a cofactor. The antioxidant function of riboflavin stems from the role of of this vitamin in the maintenance of adequate levels of glutathione (abbreviated GSH). GSH is required in several reactions in the body but also serves as an important antioxidant enzyme via its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thus prevent deleterious membrane lipid peroxidation which leads to cellular damage and death. When serving as a ROS scavenger two molecules of GSH are covalently attached forming oxidized glutathione, abbreviated GSSG. The reduction of GSSG to two molecules of GSH requires enzymes that utilize FAD as a cofactor.⁷

Riboflavin (Vitamin B₂)³⁰

1.5.2 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): The primary function of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is the production of collagen, which forms the basis for connective tissue in bones, teeth, and cartilage. It also plays an important role in wound healing, immunity, and the nervous system, and acts as a water-soluble antioxidant.

Because vitamin C is water soluble, its antioxidant functions take place in aqueous body compartments. It also helps protect low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) against free radical damage. As an antioxidant, it helps protect against cancer, cardiovascular disease, and certain effects of aging.⁸

1.5.3 Vitamin E ( α-tocopherol):

As an antioxidant, vitamin E plays a protective role in many organs and systems. Vitamin E is necessary for maintaining a healthy immune system, and it protects the thymus and circulating white blood cells from oxidative damage. Also, it may work synergistically with vitamin C in enhancing immune function. Recent research evidence indicates that the combined use of high doses of vitamin C and vitamin E helps prevent Alzheimer’s disease. In the eyes, vitamin E is needed for the development of the retina and protects against cataracts and macular degeneration. Vitamin E deficiency is rare, and occurs mostly in people with chronic liver disease and fat malabsorption syndromes, such as celiac disease and cystic fibrosis. It can lead to nerve damage, lethargy, apathy, inability to concentrate, staggering gait, low thyroid hormone levels, decreased immune response, and anemia. Marginal vitamin E deficiency may be much more common and has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer.⁹

1.6 Classification of antioxidants:-

1.6.1 Based on solubility:-

(a).Hydrophilic antioxidant: - They are soluble in water. Water soluble antioxidants react with oxidants in the cell cytoplasm and blood plasma.

(b).Hydrophobic antioxidants: - They are soluble in lipid. Lipid soluble antioxidant protects cell membranes from lipid per oxidation.

1.6.2 Based on line of defense:-

(a). First line defense (preventive antioxidant):- These are enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxides (GTX), glutathione reductase and some minerals like Se, Mn, Cu etc. SOD mainly acts by quenching of super oxide (O₂), catalase by catalyzing the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to water and oxygen. GTX catalyses the reduction of H₂O₂and lipid peroxide generated during lipid peroxidation to water using reduced glutathione as substrate.

(b). Second line defense (Radical scavenging antioxidant):- These are glutathione, Vit C, uric acid, albumin, biliribin, vit E, carotenoids, flavonoid etc. alpha-carotene is an excellent scavenger of singlet oxygen. Vit C interacts directly with radicals like O₂, OH. GSH is a good scavenger of many free radicals like O₂, OH and various lipid hydro peroxides and may help to detoxify many inhaled oxidizing air pollutants like ozone.

(c). Third line defense (Repair and de-novo enzymes):- These are a complex group of enzymes for repair of damaged DNA, protein, oxidized lipids and peroxides and also to stop chain propagation of peroxyl lipid radical. These enzymes repair the damage to biomolecules and reconstitute the damaged cell membrane.⁴

2. ANTIOXIDANT PLANTS:

2.1. Quercetin: - It belongs to an extensive class of poly phenolic flavonoid compounds. In vitro antioxidant activity was tested for DPPH free radical, superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical. It scavenges oxygen radicals, inhibits xanthine oxidase, protects against lipid peroxidation, chelates metal ions and forms inert complexes that can’t take part in the conversion of superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide into hydroxyl radicals.¹⁰

Quercetin³⁰

2.2. Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.:- It is popularly known as ‘Gorakmundi’
Family: Asteraceae. The ethanolic extract scavenges radical cation, DPPH, SOD and NO. Constituents are flavonoids, carbohydrates, alkaloids, gums and mucilage.¹¹

2.3. Rhizophora mangle bark:- Family: Rhizophoraceae. Deoxyrebose assay was used. The total extract and its fraction showed scavenging activity of hydroxyl radicals and ability to chelate iron ions. Chemical constituents are polyphenols, carbohydrates, fatty acids and sterols.¹²

2.4. Punica granatum fruits:- Family: Punicaceae Activity was evaluated using DPPHtest, 5-lipoxygenase assay and luminal / xanthine oxidase system (Chemiluminescence assay). Chemical constituents are tannins, alkaloids, glycosides.¹³

2.5. Origanum dictamnus:- Family: Labiatae. The aqueous extract scavenges free radicals generated by the Fenton reaction and reducing oxygen consumption of a methyl linoleate emulsion. The active components of herb are phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids and phenolic acids.¹⁴

2.6. Rhus oxycantha root cortex: - Family: Anacardiaceae. Antioxidant activity has been examined ascorbic acid oxidation and inhibition of toxicity induced by an organochlorine pesticide, dichloro diphenyl-trichloro ethane (DDT) in rat thymocytes. Chemical constituents are (+) epicatechin-3-0-gallate and proanthrocyanidins oligomers and polymers. (+) and (-) epicatechin show hydroxyl radical scavenging activity andproanthrocyanidins are efficient free radical scavenger.¹⁵

Structure of Epicatechin³⁰

2.7. Diospyros malabarica kostel bark:- It is popular as “Gab or Tinduk”, Family: - Ebenaceae. Different in vitro, like DPPH, nitric acid, superoxide, hydroxyl radical and lipid peroxide radical model were used in the study. Oxygen reacts with the excess nitric oxide to generate nitrite and peroxynitrite anions, which act as free radicals. The extract competes with oxygen to react with nitric oxide and thus, inhibits the generation of anions. Chemical constituents are phenolic compounds. Its stem bark is used for the treatment of intermittent fever and fruit juices for healing of wound ulcer.¹⁶

2.8. Asparagus racemosus: - Family: - Liliaceae. It shows antioxidant activity through the free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, nitric oxide scavenging, metal chelation, reduction power and inhibition of lipid peroxidation in rats. Its chemical constituents are saponins (Shatavarin I-V), alkaloids, polyphenols, flavonoids, vit.C.¹⁷

2.9. Glycyrrhiza glabra: - It is popular as licorice ‘yastimadhu’. Family: - Leguminosae.
Its extract was tested by studying the inhibition of radiation induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Chemical constituents are glycyrrhizin, flavones, coumarins. It shows its activity through free radical scavenging property. Its other actions are diuretic, demulcent, tonic etc.¹⁷

Glycyrrhizin³⁰

2.10. Boerhavia diffusa leaves: - Family: - Nictaginaceae. Alloxan induced diabetic rats were used in the study. Chemical constituents are rich in alkaloids and sterols including ursolic acid, hypoxanthine 9-L arabinofuranoside, punarnavine 1 and 2, myricyl alcohol and myristic acid. It decreases the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and increases the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and glutathione-s transferase (GST).¹⁸

myristic acid³⁰

2.11. Auricularia auricula: - It is popular as ‘tree ear or wood ear’.
Family: - Auriculaceae. It has potent hydroxyl radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition activities. Chemical constituents are flavonoids.¹⁹

Isoflavan³⁰

2.12. Annona squamosa: - It is popular as ‘Custard apple or Sitaphal’.
Family: - Annonaceae. Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats were used. It reduces the lipid peroxidation and increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes and strong super oxide radicals and singlet oxygen quenchers. Chemical constituents are flavonoids.²⁰

2.13. Echium amoenum fisch and C.A. Mey Flower:- Family: - Annonaceae. Chemical constituents are rosmarinic acid and flavonoids. Flavonoids highly scavenge most types of oxidizing molecules including singlet oxygen and various free radicals and rosmarinic acid scavenge superoxide and hydroxyl radicals.²¹

rosmarinic acid³⁰

2.14. Eucalyptus globules: - It is popular as “Karpura maram”. Family: - Myrtaceae.
The antioxidant activity of eucalyptus oil was estimated by two in vitro assays namely diphenyl picryl hydrazyl radical scavenging activity and inhibition of Fe-ADP-ascorbate induced lipid peroxidation method.²²

Eucalyptol³⁰

2.15. Pepticare: - It is a herbomineral formulation it was administered orally to rats to investigate its effect on isoproterenol induced myocardial infraction and cisplatin induced renal damage. It increases the levels of SOD, CAT and reduces GSH; membrane bound enzymes like Ca2+, g2+ and Na+K+ ATPase and decreases lipid peroxidation (MDA) in heart and kidney. Thus, it protects the heart and kidney from damage caused by isoproterenol and cisplatin.²³

2.16. Acacia arabica bark:- Family:- Mimosae. There are in vivo and in vitro experimental models. In vitro, lipid peroxidation was carried out by tertiary butyl hydroperoxide (TBH) induced lipid peroxidation. In vivo, experiments were carried out in CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. The bark contains (+) catechin, (-) epicatechin, quercetin and gallic acid. The polyphenol rich active fraction pf acacia Arabica is a potent free radical scavenger and protects TBH induced lipid peroxidation and CCl4-induced hepatic damage. It is used in the treatment of asthma, bronchitis, diabetes, dysentery and skin diseases.²⁴

(+)-Catechin³⁰

2.17. Arthritin (a polyherbal formulation):- It consisting of extracts of Acacia arabica, Withania somnifera, Juniperus communis, Asparagus racemosus, Tinospora cardifolia, Tribulus terrestris, Anethum sowa, Curcuma zerumber and Zingiber officinalis. Phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides are present in the various constituents of the polyherbal formulation act as natural free radical scavengers. It causes decreases in serum lipid peroxidase and increase in SOD & GTX. It possess a significant anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activity and also responsible for antiarthritic activity.²⁵

2.18. Acacia catechu: - It is popular as ‘Khadira’ (black catechu). Family: - Leguminosae. Its extract was tested by studying the inhibition of radiation induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Its chemical constituents are catechin, tannic acid, quercetin, red tannin.²⁵

2.19.Ligustrum valgare and L. delavaynum leaves:- Family: -Oleaceae.
Activity was evaluated using DPPH test. Its chemical constituents are flavonoids, iridoids, coumarins, phenyl propanes and essential oil. Flavonoid aglycones are responsible for the activity. It shows free radical scavenging activity.²⁶

2.20. Triphala: - It is a traditional ayurvedic herbal formulation consisting of the dried fruits of three medicinal plants. Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica and Phyllanthus emblica, also called as ‘three myrobalans’. Activity was evaluated using DPPH test.²⁷

2.21. Terminalia chebula: - It is known as ‘Myrobalanus chebula or Harde’.Family: - Combretaceae. Its chemical constituents are tannins, chebulinic, ellegic and gallic acids. Its extract was tested by studying the inhibition of radiation induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. It shows free radical scavenging activity due to presence of tannins. It inhibits the development of duodenal ulcer and appeared to extract a cytoprotective effect on the gastric mucosa.²⁸

2.22. Zingiber officinale: - It is commonly called as ‘ginger’. Family: - Zingiberaceae. Its chemical constituents are volatile oil, starch, acrid resinous matter, shagoals, zingerone, peradols etc.²⁹

2.23. Mentha arvensis:- Family: - Labiatae. The antioxidant activity of menthe oil was estimated by two in vitro assays, DPPH radical scavenging activity and inhibition of Fe-ADP-Ascorbate induced lipid peroxidation (LPO) method. It contains 80% L-menthol and due to this, it shows antioxidant property. It shows antioxidant activity by decreasing lipid peroxidation.²⁹

2.24. Citrus lemon:- Family: - Rutaceae. The antioxidant activity was estimated by two in vitro assays, DPPH radical scavenging activity and inhibition of Fe-ADP-Ascorbate induced lipid peroxidation (LPO) method. It contains mainly citral and limonene. The antioxidant property is shown due to presence of citral.²⁹

3. CONCLUSION:

Herbs and plants containing antioxidants offer unique benefits. While it is known that diets focused on foods high in antioxidants can help prevent cancers.

“The available evidence points to the benefits of food-derived antioxidants, but more evidence is needed before (Isolated) antioxidant supplementation can be routinely recommended”. “A predominantly plant-based diet reduces the risk for development of several chronic diseases. It is often assumed that antioxidants contribute to this protection, but results from intervention trials with single antioxidants administered as supplements quite consistently do not support any benefit. Because dietary plants contain several hundred different antioxidants” it makes sense to consume food antioxidants and not individual, isolated ones.

Although some scientists think isolated nutrients have questionable and even negative effects, “It is doubtful that antioxidant-rich foods would have a negative impact on brain aging” —or anything else for that matter. Humans are supposed to eat foods and not consume isolated USP nutrients (even if they are called ‘natural’ and even if they are called ‘antioxidants’). Since all free radical and oxidative substances do not get neutralized by all antioxidants, it makes sense to consume a variety of plants and/or antioxidant containing herbs—plants which contain hundreds of antioxidant compounds.

4. REFERENCES:

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Received on 25.10.2010

Accepted on 02.12.2010

Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2(6): Nov. - Dec. 2010, 427-434

Raipur Institute of Technology, RITEE, Chhatauna, Mandir Hasaud, Raipur (C.G.) 492101

2.4. Punica granatum fruits:- Family: Punicaceae Activity was evaluated using DPPHtest, 5-lipoxygenase assay and luminal / xanthine oxidase system (Chemiluminescence assay). Chemical constituents are tannins, alkaloids, glycosides.13

Isoflavan30

(+)-Catechin30

2.18. Acacia catechu: - It is popular as ‘Khadira’ (black catechu). Family: - Leguminosae. Its extract was tested by studying the inhibition of radiation induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Its chemical constituents are catechin, tannic acid, quercetin, red tannin.25

2.4. Punica granatum fruits:- Family: Punicaceae Activity was evaluated using DPPHtest, 5-lipoxygenase assay and luminal / xanthine oxidase system (Chemiluminescence assay). Chemical constituents are tannins, alkaloids, glycosides.¹³

Isoflavan³⁰

(+)-Catechin³⁰

2.18. Acacia catechu: - It is popular as ‘Khadira’ (black catechu). Family: - Leguminosae. Its extract was tested by studying the inhibition of radiation induced lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Its chemical constituents are catechin, tannic acid, quercetin, red tannin.²⁵